Not many people are aware that the famous Parthenon which sits upon the emblematic Acropolis of Athens once was home to a majestic Christian church dedicated to the Mother of God. This Eastern Roman church was perhaps longer-lasting than the pagan temple ever was. This church was famous, and due to its continuous usage it preserved much of the ancient structure. The Parthenon went from Pagan temple to Christian church to an Ottoman mosque
THE GREAT CHURCH OF ATHENS:
The Parthenon Church – a phase of its existence which lasted nearly a millennium – was referred to by an honorable name as the “Great Church of Athens.” This name was “an expression of considerable local pride for the Athenians” according to Anthony Kaldellis. That make sense, because the Great Church was the name for the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, frequently used in primary sources by Roman writers. The comparison in name would have been very meaningful to them. Another interesting claim Kaldellis makes, and he is very in tune with the primary sources so I believe him, is that “we have more evidence for the Parthenon in Byzantium than we do for antiquity.” This was an extremely important building in the Byzantine period, in antiquity it was not considered an especially impressive temple, the statue of Athena inside seemed more of a spectacle to ancient viewers.
How was did an ancient Greek pagan building become a Roman church? It seems the building went through some tough times in the end of its pagan period. There was a great fire at an unknown time in late antiquity in the Parthenon which did much damage to the structure. The destruction, according to Anthony Kaldellis “may have been caused by Alaric and his Goths, who plundered and burned at least the lower part of the city in AD 396 and may have even reached the acropolis, despite the pagan narrative of Zosimos who had Athena save the city.” At some point, the city burned, despite us not having a clear sense of when. Whatever the case, it seems it was initially restored as a pagan site once more.
It is not clearly recorded when exactly the Parthenon was made into a church. In 410AD it seems there is evidence it was still a pagan building. Anthony Kaldellis recounts the visit of Damaskios: “In 489-90 Damaskios and Isidoros traveled from Alexandria to Athens, exploring the history, religion, and intellectual life of places along the way in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. Because of the fragmentary surival of Damaskios’ account, we do not know what they found in Athens beyond the schools, but it is unlikely that the Parthenon could have impressed these men beyond measure. It is likely, moreover, that the Parthenon had been converted into a church just a few years before Damaskios’ arrival.” One thing is certain though, by the 7th century it was indisputably a church, as was the Erectheion.
There was some continuity for the local population, despite this apparently seismic change. “When the Theotoks replaced Athena in the Parthenon, she took over the pagan goddess’ place as the patron deity and protectress of the city…The Parthenon, in other words, retained its function and symbolism as the home of the city’s holy guardian. Thus the role that the monument played in the topography and civic ideology of Athens was preserved, among both Christians and pagans. One patron ‘saint’ took over from another just as elsewhere healing gods were replaced by healing saints, as for example in the Asklepieon at the foot of the rock (acropolis).”-Anthony Kaldellis
THE PILGRIMAGE OF BASIL II TO ATHENS:
Many do not realize that the Parthenon in Athens was a church for around a millennium, one special enough that Basil II went there in 1018AD – the church of the Theotokos in Athens was to be graced by presence the most victorious and dominant ruler in the Christian world, the most powerful Roman Emperor in centuries.
The historian John Skylitzes…details Basil II’s tour of Greece which clearly was focused on going to Athens, and specifically to the Acropolis. According to Anthony Kaldellis “the pace of this march was apparently leisurely, with time to admire the sites associated with the past generation of warfare…The purpose of the visit, we are told, was religious: after reaching Athens and giving thanks to the Mother of God, adorning the temple with magnificent and expensive dedications, he returned to Constantinople.” When he headed back to the capital, he gave thanks for his victory there at the Hagia Sophia as well.
Kaldellis elaborates: “It is a pity we do not have more information about Basileios’ stay in Athens…Unfortunately, we know nothing of the thousands of others who witnessed the ceremonies in Athens and attended upon the emperor and his heavenly protectress (the Theotokos). Nor can we be sure exactly what Basileios dedicated in her church…Possibly what he gave came from the spoils of the recent war. At any rate, his gifts would have conformed to tradition.” Most likely that meant the gifting of golden vessels and other valuable items for the church to use.
Going to Athens was “an unexpected choice far from strategic areas.” That is why emperors never really went there, even though it had a nice church on its acropolis. “So why did Basileios go to Athens? We must first recognize how unusual his action was. As far as we know, no emperor had visited Athens since Constans II in the seventh century.” Basil had visited other sites, such as St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki to “honor the famous martyr.” But that was not a detour from his strategic areas. “Skylitzes tells us that Basileios traveled to Athens for no other reason than to thank the Mother of God in her temple for his victories….Basileios would not have travelled so far out of his way unless he believed that the Parthenon was among the most important religious sites in his western provinces, if not the most important one.” The way Skylitzes refers to the Parthenon as “the temple” implies his audience in Constantinople all knew of this temple, it was a well-known site of worship.
Basil II clearly thought the Parthenon was the best place to give thanks to the Theotokos, whom he clearly thought deserved the most credit for his success.
CATHOLIC CONQUEST:
BRIEF ROMAN LIBERATION:
Constantine XI Palaiologos briefly liberated Athens, seizing it during the last ever offensive campaign of the Roman Empire. Constantinople by the 1440’s was like a city-state within Ottoman territory. But, in the Peloponnese, there was the last province remaining, the Despotate of the Morea – and it was from here that the Despot Constantine would make the last attempt to expand Roman territory by conquest.
The Crusade of Varna offered the Romans a hope of a reversal, even if it was nothing close to a guarantee. The crusade had set out from Hungary against the Ottomans in 1443. This large Christian army alarmed the Ottoman Sultan Murad, who had no choice but to deal with this problem with his full attention.
It is likely Constantine knew this was the only chance to expand the Romans would ever get, they could never face the Ottoman army themselves. However, perhaps if they took territory and the crusade was successful, they could retain it. It was a gamble, but the Romans had nothing to really lose they were facing certain conquest sooner or later without a geopolitical change. Constantine invaded the Latin Duchy of Athens, a state originally set up by the Franks after the Fourth Crusade, though by now it had seen several different rulers over it. In the early 15th century it was held by the Acciajuoli family from Florence, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, by attacking their vassal, Constantine had boldly declared war on the Ottoman Turks.
The Ottomans had other more serious issues to deal with than the pesky Romans in southern Greece. Nerio (the ruler of Athens) was not prepared for a Roman army to show up at Athens, probably not expecting the weak Romans to act against Ottoman interests. In 1444 Constantine and his Roman army marched across the Isthmus of Corinth and into Attica where they forced Nerio to surrender the Duchy of Athens, which also included the ancient city of Thebes. He boldly demanded Nerio pay to him the tribute which had been going to the Ottomans.
I think it is incredibly likely, nearly a sure thing, that Constantine XI climbed the steps up to the Acropolis to give thanks to God for his success in the Great Church of Athens. The liberation of Athens covered Constantine in glory, and would have been a proud moment for him. According to Donald M. Nicol “One of Constantine’s counsellors and flatterers was moved to compare him with Themistocles.” But then the bad news… “The pope’s crusade got no further than Varna on the Black Sea coast. There it was annihilated by the Turks.”
When the Ottomans came back with an army of 60,000 Constantine retreated away from Athens, he could not truly hold the city, and thus the Parthenon would be entering its next phase of its history as an Islamic religious site.
THE PARTHENON MOSQUE:
The Ottoman conquest of Athens in 1458, formally ending the Latin rule of the city which had temporarily been reinstated, was the definitive end of the Parthenon as a place of Christian worship. It was now the mosque of the Turkish masters of Athens, and the Acropolis itself served as the Turkish quarter of the Athens. The Acropolis functioned as the citadel, place where the governor could control the city and plain of Attica, as well as an urban space. The Acropolis was not empty as it is now, it was covered in houses. The Erectheion was the location of the Ottoman governor’s harem.
Sources:
The Christian Parthenon by Anthony Kaldellis
The Immortal Emperor by Donald M. Nicol (for the campaign of Constantine XI in Athens)
shadowsofconstantinople.com 